"Sartre says that man feels alien in a world without meaning. When describing man's ‘alienation’, he is echoing the central ideas of Hegel and Marx. Man's feeling of alienation in the world creates a sense of despair, boredom, and absurdity."                                                     

(Gaarder 1991,p. 379) 

Traditionally individuals were largely part of a collectivist social order, in which God's will and traditions determined life (Vukonic 1996). From the time of the Renaissance, however, the degree of external control diminished in favour of more individualistic ways of living (Durkheim 1992). Utilitarian individualism thus became characteristic of capitalistic enterprise culture and encouraged people to satisfy their personal wants and maximise self-interest. Expressive individualism extended this concept by shifting emphasis from satisfying wants, triggered by wealth and consumption, to focusing on more intrinsic needs (Heelas 1996).

Taylor (1989) speaks of a subjective turn of modern culture, facilitated by scientific advances in the field of psychology, causing people to become increasingly interested in the self, its capacity, value and problems (Heelas 1996).  However this process of detraditionalisation of  self (Heelas 1996), which has led to individualism, confronted individuals with a number of problems.  Heelas (1996) states that institutions such as work, education, consumer culture and social structures no longer provide meaning or fulfilment for the individual. This phenomenon described as social saturation (Gergen 1991) stems from a social necessity to play out multiple roles, thus losing perspective of the real person within. Furthermore consumer culture constantly raises expectations, creating a perceived gap between real and ideal self, resulting in a constant mode of discontent as endless aspirations are bestowed upon the individual (York 1995). Furthermore scientific, technological and economic progress has created various problems, such as personal alienation, ecological disasters and new diseases (Chryssides 1999). Weber (1985) described modernity as an ‘Iron Cage’(cited in Heelas 1996, p. 139), dominating individuals with rules, regulations and imperatives, in particular the imperative to consume.

These conditions may foster the urge to escape and seek alternatives, which may enable individuals to liberate their identities and take control of their lives. Based on Maslow's (1970) notion of hierarchy of needs, Inglehard (1977) identified a paradigm shift in post-modern society, away from material well being and physical security to an emphasis on quality in life.  Advancing by means of externals is therefore discarded in favour of exploring inner riches, with the aim of overcoming the contaminations of society, which render the individual rigid and inauthentic (Heelas 1996). This aim was manifested in its most distinct form in the establishment of the New Age Movement.